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Iconographic Links between Indic and Ancient West Asian Storm Gods


Seiten 141 - 151

DOI https://doi.org/10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0141




While linguistic and folkloristic connections are regularly drawn between the Vedic storm god Indra and the Hittite storm gods, iconographic parallels have not been considered. This essay considers the iconography of the thunderweapon employed by each god. Publishing for the first time images of early Vajras (Indra's thunderweapon) from Mathura and Bharatpur, this essay disproves supposed origins of the Vajra in Greek influence and argues the similarities of the Indian and Hittite images are the result of Proto-Indo-European iconography.

Washington, D. C.

1 N. B., popular Sanskrit names have not been given in academic transcription.

2 M. L. West: Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford 2007, p. 20. I am currently in the midst of a large research project exploring this shared inheritance and its relationship to Semitic storm god myths and, in particular, those involving the Canaanite Baal and the Israelite Yahweh. See, preliminarily, R. D. Miller II: “Tracking the Dragon Across the Ancient Near East.” In: Archív Orientální forthcoming (2014), n. p.

3 É. Pirart: La Naissance d'Indra. Paris 2010 (Collection Kubaba Série Antiquité 18), pp. 33–52. For recent iconographic approaches in the ancient world, see M.-A. Ataç: “Religion as Represented in the Art of the Ancient Near East.” In: Religion Compass 2 (2008), pp. 889–928; W. J. T. Mitchell: “What Do Pictures Want?” and “Drawing Desire.” In: W. J. T. Mitchell (ed.): What Do Pictures Want? The Lives and Loves of Images. Chicago 2005, pp. 28–56 and 57–75.

4 F. B. Flood: “Herakles and the ‘Perpetual Acolyte’ of the Buddha.” In: South Asian Studies 5 (1989), pp. 17–27; W. Al-Salihi, “Hercules-Nergal at Hatra.” In: Iraq 33 (1971), pp. 113–115; “The Weary Hercules of Mesene.” In: Mesopotamia 22 (1987), pp. 159–167; R. Ghirshman: “Un Bas-relief parthe de la Collection Foroughi.” In: Artibus Asiae 37 (1975), pp. 229–239.

5 D. T. Devendra: “A Note on Lightning in Iconography with Special Reference to the Vajra.” In N. A. Jayawickrama (ed.): Paranavitana Felicitation Volume on Art & Architecture and Oriental Studies. Colombo 1965, pp. 131–132.

6 C. Blinkenberg: The Thunderweapon in Religion and Folklore. New Rochelle 1911.

7 This was the argument of Blinkenberg 1911, p. 48.

8 A. Banerji: “Origin, Morphology, and Typological Evolution of Vajra in Indian Art.” In: Roopa-lekha 1–2 (1981), p. 17. Banerji counts them as Vajras, however.

9 Banerji 1981, p. 17. Devendra 1965, pp. 131–132, oddly claims that Indra carries no weapon until the 4th century ad.

10 S. B. Deo: Markandi Temples. Registrar 1973, pls. xxv.2; xxvii.2.

11 S. D. Trivedi: Sculptures in the Jhansi Museum. Jhansi 1983, p. 66, pls. 56–57.

12 M. Desai: The Gupta Temple at Deogarh. Bombay 1958 (Heritage of Indian Art 1), p. 4; A. Lubotsky: “The Iconography of the Visnu Temple at Deogarh and the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa.” In: Ars Orientalis 26 (1996), pp. 65, 67, 69, 75; A. Lubotsky: “The ‘Sarvatobhadra’ Temple of the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa and the Viṣṇu Temple at Deogarh.” In: A. W. van den Hoeck / D. H. A. Kolff / M. S. Oort (eds.): Ritual, State and History in South Asia. Leiden 1992, p. 202; K. Imig: “Recherchen über den Gupta-Tempel in Deogarh.” In: Artibus Asiae 63,1 (2003), pp. 35–68. Another supposed Indra enthroned with Vajra from the Gupta period is in the medallion on the last panel of the Gupta Siva Temple of Bhumara (Bhubhara), but there is no evidence that this figure is supposed to be Indra at all (R. D. Banerji: The Temple of Siva at Bhumara. Vol. 16. Supt., Govt. Print., India [Calcutta] 1924, p. 13), and the object in the figure's hand (Banerji 1924: pl. XIVc) looks nothing like a Vajra.

13 U. C. Bhattacharya: Catalogue and Guide to Rajputana Museum, Ajmer, Rajasthan. Vol. 1. Jaipur 1960–1961; M. Lerner: “Some Unpublished Sculpture from Harshagiri.” In: The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 56 (1969), pp. 354–364. A supposed 8th-century Indra in the Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha shrine in the Seven Pagodas of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) is now known to be not Indra (S. Huntington: “Iconographic Reflection on the Arjuna Ratha.” In: J. G. Willilam: Kalādarśana. New Delhi 1981, pp. 59–61).

14 K. C. Panigrahi: Archaeological Remains at Bhubaneswar. Bombay 1961, pp. 82, 143.

15 T. K. Das Gupta: Der Vajra: Eine Vedische Waffe. Wiesbaden 1975 (Alt- und Neu-Indische Studien 16).

16 Das Gupta 1975, p. 115, figs. 89.17–22 b.

17 Das Gupta 1975, figs. 89.9–12.

18 Das Gupta 1975, pp. 13, 92, 115.

19 Das Gupta 1975, pp. 71–81.

20 A. Banerji: Images, Attributes, and Motifs. Delhi 1993, p. 2. 39; Banerji 1981, pp. 15–16; J. Rajarajan: “A Note on Vaccirakkottam.” In: East and West 54 (2004), p. 292.

21 Banerji 1993, fig. XXI, pl. 80; Bhattacharya 1960–1961, pl. xii.

22 Banerji 1993, p. 2. 37; U. Chakravarty: Indra and Other Vedic Deities. New Delhi 1997 (Contemporary Researches in Hindu Philosophy & Religion 8), pp. 97–98.

23 A. Kumar: “The Vajra of Indra: An Archaeological Approach.” In: C. Margabandhu / K. S. Ramachandran (eds.): Spectrum of Indian Culture. Delhi 1996, p. 2. 448.

24 R. Thapar: A History of India. Vol. 1. New York 1966, repr. 1981, pp. 119–128.

25 R. C. SharMa: The Splendor of Mathura Art and Museum. New Delhi 1994 (Perspectives in Indian Art & Archaeology 1), p. 106; R. C. SharMa: Mathura Museum and Art. Mathura 1976, p. 49; V. S. Agrawala: Handbook of the Sculptures in the Curzon Museum of Archaeology, Muttra. Allahabad 1939, pp. 34–35.

26 SharMa 1994, p. 119. Several other Gandharan “Indras” from Mathura are doubtful. 34.2367 from Mahādevghāt (2nd century) does not look like Indra at all. Stupa Drum N2 from Gokarneswar Mound (4th century) presents several gods bringing gifts but no way to tell which one is Indra. 17.1297 from Surujghat and 15.1178 from Yamunā River (both 2nd century) are only heads of Indra.

27 K. C. Chattopadhyaya: Studies in Vedic and Indo-Iranian Religion and Literature. Varanasi 1978, p. 2. 88.

28 Flood 1989, p. 22; P. Banerjee: New Light on Central Asian Art and Iconography. New Delhi 1992, p. 170.

29 O. Bopearachchi: “Part Two.” In: O. Bopearachchi / W. Pieper (eds.): Ancient Indian Coins. Turnhout 1998, p. 178.

30 Bopearachchi, 1998, p. 182.

31 Bopearachchi, 1998, p. 197.

32 Bopearachchi, 1998, p. 209.

33 Bopearachchi, 1998, p. 225.

34 Thapar 1966, repr. 1981, p. 93.

35 Thapar 1966, repr. 1981, pp. 94–95.

36 SharMa 1994, p. 74; SharMa 1976, pp. 33, 39; Agrawala 1939, p. 28. Other supposed Mathura Indras from this period, such as 11.161, have little to identify them as Indras.

37 Banerji 1981, fig. 1.3–3 a.

38 M. L. Carter: “Aspects of the Imagery of Verethragna.” In: B. G. Fragner et al. (eds.): Proceedings of the Second Conference of Iranian Studies. Rome 1995, pp. 120–121, 129; A. K. Narain: The Indo-Greeks. Rev. ed. Delhi 2003, p. 468.

39 P. Jacobsthal: Der Blitz in der orientalischen und griechischen Kunst. Berlin 1906.

40 Jacobsthal 1906, pp. 39–41.

41 Bopearachchi, 1998, p. 237, pl. 38.92.

42 Bopearachchi, 1998, p. 238, pl. 38.97.

43 Jacobsthal 1906, pp. 24–25, fig. 1. The only late example of a double blossom is from Başmakçı (Faustinopolis), 2nd century ad; G. Jacopi: Esplorazioni e Studi in Paflagonia e Cappadocia. Rome 1937, pl. 30, fig. 125.

44 Jacobsthal 1906, pp. 13–20.

45 G. Bunnens: “The Storm-God in Northern Syria and Southern Anatolia from Hadad of Aleppo to Jupiter Dolichenus.” In: M. Hutter / S. Hutter-Braunsar (eds.): Offizielle Religion, lokale Kulte und individuelle Religiosität. Münster 2004 (AOAT 318), pp. 57, 65.

46 Bunnens 2004, p. 59.

47 E. D. Van Buren: Symbols of the Gods in Mesopotamian Art. Rome 1945 (Acta Orientalia 23), pp. 68–69.

48 Van Buren 1945, p. 67. On the East Semitic storm god / dragon myth, see D. Schwemer: “The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Part II.” In: Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 8.1 (2008), p. 24; F. A. M. Wiggermann: “Tišpak, his seal, and the dragon mušḫuššu.” In: O. M. C. Haex / H. H. Curvers / P. M. M. G. Akkermans (eds.): To the Euphrates and Beyond: Archaeological Studies in Honour of Maurits N. van Loon. Rotterdam 1989, pp. 123–126; Lewis: “CT 13.33–34 and Ezekiel 32: Lion-Dragon Myths.” In: JAOS 116.1 (1996), p. 30.

49 J. D. Hawkins: “What does the Hittite Storm-God Hold?” In: D. J. W. Meijer (ed.): Natural phenomena: Their Meaning, Depiction and Description in the Ancient Near East. Amsterdam 1992, p. 78.

50 Bunnens 2004, p. 59.

51 Bunnens 2004, p. 68.

52 C. Watkins: How to Kill a Dragon. Oxford / New York 1995, pp. 50, 165.

53 Watkins 1995, p. 297.

54 Watkins 1995, p. 298.

55 Watkins 1995, pp. 299–300.

56 Watkins 1995, p. 300.

57 Watkins 1995, p. 301.

58 Watkins 1995, p. 341.

59 U. Chakravarty 1997, p. 114.

60 R. Hodgson: “Indra and Vṛtra.” McMaster University 1975, p. ii.

61 R. Hodgson: “Indra and Vṛtra.” McMaster University 1975, p. 4.

62 G. Beckman: “The Religion of the Hittites.” In: Biblical Archeologist 52 (1989), p. 104; Watkins 1995, p. 450.

63 M. Popko: Religions of Asia Minor. Warsaw 1995, p. 69; Schwemer 2008, p. 18.

64 G. Beckman: “The Anatolian Myth of Illuyanka.” In: Journal for the Ancient Near Eastern Society 14 (1982), p. 24; Beckman 1989, p. 105.

65 Beckman 1982, p. 18.

66 G. Komoróczy: “Zu den Anfängen der Mythographie im Alten Orient.” In: Acta Antiqua 19 (1971), p. 187; Beckman 1982, p. 11; Watkins 1995, p. 449; E. Masson: Le combat pour l'Immortalité. Paris 1991, p. 100.

67 Watkins 1995, pp. 324, 344.

68 H. Gonnet: “La Fête Hittite du Printemps.” In: Revue de la Société des élèves, anciens élèves et amis de la Section des Sciences religieuses de l'EPHE Ve section 2 (1989), pp. 14–15; Watkins 1995, pp. 154, 444. Note the feast is “at the head of the year” (MU. KAM-aš SAG.DU-as) or the feast “of the year” (EZEN MUti); KUB 36.97 iii 3'; Masson 1991, pp. 46–48, 57 n. 30. Hittite New Year began with the first full moon after the spring equinox; H. ten Cate: “Hittite Storm God.” In: D. J. W. Maijer (ed.): Natural Phenomena. Amsterdam 1992, pp. 93–94.

69 R. J. Dumbrill: The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East. Victoria, British Columbia 2003, p. 270.

70 Masson 1991, p. 101; Watkins 1995, pp. 302, 321, 356.

71 Watkins 1995, pp. 303, 359.

72 M. J. Rein: “Phrygian Matar: Emergence of an Iconographic Type.” In: M. J. Vermaseren / E. N. Lane (eds.): Cybelle, Attis and Related Cults. Leiden 1996, pp. 150, 224–225; V.-E. Hirschmann: Horrenda Secta. Stuttgart 2005, pp. 62–63.

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